United States antitrust law Wikipedia. United States antitrust law is a collection of federal and state government laws that regulates the conduct and organization of business corporations, generally to promote fair competition for the benefit of consumers. The concept is called competition law in other English speaking countries. The main statutes are the Sherman Act 1. Clayton Act 1. 91. Federal Trade Commission Act 1. These Acts, first, restrict the formation of cartels and prohibit other collusive practices regarded as being in restraint of trade. Second, they restrict the mergers and acquisitions of organizations that could substantially lessen competition. Third, they prohibit the creation of a monopoly and the abuse of monopoly power. The Federal Trade Commission, the U. S. Department of Justice, state governments and private parties who are sufficiently affected may all bring actions in the courts to enforce the antitrust laws. The Oil Curse Michael Ross Pdf Application' title='The Oil Curse Michael Ross Pdf Application' />The scope of antitrust laws, and the degree to which they should interfere in an enterprises freedom to conduct business, or to protect smaller businesses, communities and consumers, are strongly debated. One view, mostly closely associated with the Chicago School of economics suggests that antitrust laws should focus solely on the benefits to consumers and overall efficiency, while a broad range of legal and economic theory sees the role of antitrust laws as also controlling economic power in the public interest. Historyedit. The Bosses of the Senate, a cartoon by Joseph Keppler depicting corporate interestsfrom steel, copper, oil, iron, sugar, tin, and coal to paper bags, envelopes, and saltas giant money bags looming over the tiny senators at their desks in the Chamber of the United States Senate3Although trust has a specific legal meaning where one person holds property for the benefit of another, in the late 1. Large manufacturing conglomerates emerged in great numbers in the 1. The Interstate Commerce Act of 1. It was followed by the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1. Clayton Antitrust Act of 1. Federal Trade Commission Act of 1. RobinsonPatman Act of 1. CellerKefauver Act of 1. At this time hundreds of small short line railroads were being bought up and consolidated into giant systems. Separate laws and policies emerged regarding railroads and financial concerns such as banks and insurance companies. People for strong antitrust laws argued the American economy to be successful requires free competition and the opportunity for individual Americans to build their own businesses. The Oil Curse Michael Ross Pdf Application' title='The Oil Curse Michael Ross Pdf Application' />As Senator John Sherman put it, If we will not endure a king as a political power we should not endure a king over the production, transportation, and sale of any of the necessaries of life. Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act almost unanimously in 1. The Act prohibits agreements in restraint of trade and abuse of monopoly power. It gives the Justice Department the mandate to go to federal court for orders to stop illegal behavior or to impose remedies. Public officials during the Progressive Era put passing and enforcing strong antitrust high on their agenda. President Theodore Roosevelt sued 4. Sherman Act, while William Howard Taft sued 7. In 1. 90. 2, Roosevelt stopped the formation of the Northern Securities Company, which threatened to monopolize transportation in the Northwest see Northern Securities Co. United States. One of the more well known trusts was the Standard Oil Company John D. Rockefeller in the 1. In 1. 91. 1 the Supreme Court agreed that in recent years 1. Standard had violated the Sherman Act see Standard Oil Co. New Jersey v. United States. It broke the monopoly into three dozen separate companies that competed with one another, including Standard Oil of New Jersey later known as Exxon and now Exxon. Mobil, Standard Oil of Indiana Amoco, Standard Oil Company of New York Mobil, again, later merged with Exxon to form Exxon. Mobil, of California Chevron, and so on. In approving the breakup the Supreme Court added the rule of reason not all big companies, and not all monopolies, are evil and the courts not the executive branch are to make that decision. To be harmful, a trust had to somehow damage the economic environment of its competitors. United States Steel Corporation, which was much larger than Standard Oil, won its antitrust suit in 1. Standard Oil did. In fact, it lobbied for tariff protection that reduced competition, and so contending that it was one of the good trusts that benefited the economy is somewhat doubtful. Likewise International Harvester survived its court test, while other monopolies were broken up in tobacco, meatpacking, and bathtub fixtures. Over the years hundreds of executives of competing companies who met together illegally to fix prices went to federal prison. In 1. Congress passed the Clayton Act, which prohibited specific business actions such as price discrimination and tying if they substantially lessened competition. At the same time Congress established the Federal Trade Commission FTC, whose legal and business experts could force business to agree to consent decrees, which provided an alternative mechanism to police antitrust. American hostility to big business began to decrease after the Progressive Era. For example, Ford Motor Company dominated auto manufacturing, built millions of cheap cars that put America on wheels, and at the same time lowered prices, raised wages, and promoted manufacturing efficiency. Welfare capitalism made large companies an attractive place to work new career paths opened up in middle management local suppliers discovered that big corporations were big purchasers. Talk of trust busting faded away. Under the leadership of Herbert Hoover, the government in the 1. Coordinates. The United States of America USA, commonly known as the United States U. S. or America, is a federal republic composed of 50 states, a federal. FTC an ally of respectable business. The printing equipment company ATF explicitly states in its 1. United States antitrust law is a collection of federal and state government laws that regulates the conduct and organization of business corporations, generally to. Triepels Slagwerk Geleen Limburg,Uw Drumspecialist, Drumstel kopen, boomwhacker lessen. Tj3657m-1Q.jpg]];var lpix_1=pix_1.length;var p1_0= [[600' alt='The Oil Curse Michael Ross Pdf Application' title='The Oil Curse Michael Ross Pdf Application' />During the New Deal, attempts were made to stop cutthroat competition. The National Industrial Recovery Act NIRA was a short lived program in 1. The Robinson Patman Act of 1. To control big business, the New Deal policymakers federal and state regulationcontrolling the rates and telephone services provided by American Telephone Telegraph Company AT T, for exampleand by building up countervailing power in the form of labor unions. In 1. Reagan administration used the Sherman Act to break up AT T into one long distance company and seven regional Baby Bells, arguing that competition should replace monopoly for the benefit of consumers and the economy as a whole. The pace of business takeovers quickened in the 1. FTC or the Justice Department. Often the government demanded that certain subsidiaries be sold so that the new company would not monopolize a particular geographical market. In 1. Justice Department sued Microsoft. A highly publicized trial found that Microsoft had strong armed many companies in an attempt to prevent competition from the Netscape browser. In 2. Microsoft to split in two, preventing it from future misbehavior. The Court of Appeals affirmed in part and reversed in part. In addition, it removed the judge from the case for discussing the case with the media while it was still pending. ImageType-100/3450-1/{F3178B4B-C111-4C8E-B3D3-F3B9133081B7}Img100.jpg' alt='The Oil Curse Michael Ross Pdf Application' title='The Oil Curse Michael Ross Pdf Application' />Colonization Atomic Rockets     Somethings wrong, Ben whispered. There always is.      Im serious. He let his fingers trace out a line across the black sky. What do you see     With the Sun eclipsed by the shadow of the FGB module, she gazed out at the subtle light. There was that bright planet, andthe dim red disc of rubble surrounding the Chaera black hole, from here just visible as more than a point source of light. Theres a glow around the star itself, covering the orbit of that single planet, Ben said. Can you see It was a diffuse shine, Madeleine saw, cloudy, ragged edged. Ben continued. Thats an oddity in itself. But     Then she got it. Oh. No zodiacal light. The zodiacal light, in the Solar System, was a faint glow along the plane of the ecliptic. The Oil Curse Michael Ross Pdf Application' title='The Oil Curse Michael Ross Pdf Application' />Sometimes it was visible from Earth. It was sunlight, scattered by dust that orbited the Sun in the plane of the planets. Most of the dust was in or near the asteroid belt, created by asteroid collisions. And in the modern Solar System, of course, the zodiacal light was enhanced by the glow of Gaijin colonies. So if theres no zodiacal light     There are no asteroids here, Ben said. Nemoto. What happened to the asteroids     You already know, I think, virtual Nemoto hissed. Ben nodded. They were mined out. Probably long ago. This place is old, Madeleine. Its like a fragment of a GMCa giant molecular cloud, Ben said. Mostly hydrogen, some dust. Its thickcomparatively. A hundred thousand molecules per cubic centimeter. The Sun was born out of such a cloud, Madeleine. But the heat of the Sun dispersed the remnants of our cloud. So why hasnt the same thing happened here     Or, virtual Nemoto said sourly, maybe the question should be How come the gas cloud got put back around this starThey came at the planet with the Sun behind them, so it showed a nearly full disc. It glared, brilliant white, just a solid mass of cloud from pole to pole, blinding and featureless. And it was surrounded by a pearly glow of interstellar hydrogen, like an immense, misshapen outer atmosphere. They could see nothing of the surface. Their instruments revealed a world that was indeed like Venus an atmosphere of carbon dioxide, kilometers thick, scarcely any water. File Open Save Dialog Box'>File Open Save Dialog Box. There was, of course, no life of any kind. Ben was troubled. Theres no reason for a Venus to form this far from the Sun. This world should be temperate. An Earth.      But, Nemoto hissed, think what this world has that Earth doesnt share. The gas cloud, Madeleine said. Ben nodded. All that interstellar hydrogen. Madeleine, were so far from the Sun now, and the gas is so thick, that the hydrogen is neutralnot ionized by sunlight. And so     And so the planet down there has no defense against the gas its magnetic field could only keep it out if it was charged. Hydrogen has been raining down from the sky, into the upper air. Once there, it will mix with any oxygen present, Nemoto said. Hydrogen plus oxygen gives     Water, Madeleine said. Lots of it, Ben told her. It must have rained like hell, for a million years. Speech Recognition Pdf Ppt. The atmosphere was drained of oxygen, and filled up with water vapor. A greenhouse effect took off     All that from a wisp of gas     That wisp of gas was a planet killer, Nemoto whispered. But why would anyone kill a planet     It is the logic of growth, Nemoto said. This has all the characteristics of an old system, Meacher. Caught behind a wave of colonizationall its usable resources dug out and exploited. Madeleine frowned. I dont believe it. It would take a hell of a long time to eat up a star system. How long do you think     I dont know. Millions of years, perhaps. Nemoto grunted. Listen to me. The growth rate of the human population on Earth, historically, was two percent a year. Doesnt sound like much, does it But its compound interest, remember. At that rate your population doubles every thirty five years, an increase by tenfold every century or so. Of course after the twentieth century our growth rates collapsed we ran out of resources. Ah, Ben said. What if wed kept on growing     How many people could Earth hold Nemoto whispered. Ten, twenty billion Meacher, the whole of the inner Solar System out to Mars could supply only enough water for maybe fifty billion people. It might have taken us a century to reach those numbers. Of course there is much more water in the asteroids and the outer system than in Earths oceans, perhaps enough to support ten thousand trillion human beings. A huge number.      But not infiniteand only six tenfold jumps away from ten billion. Just six or seven centuries, Ben said. And then what Nemoto whispered. Suppose we start colonizing, like the Gaijin. Earth is suddenly the center of a growing sphere of colonization whose volume must keep increasing at two percent a year, to keep up with the population growth. And that means that the leading edge, the colonizing wave, has to sweep on faster and faster, eating up worlds and stars and moving on to the next, because of the pressure from behind. Ben was doing sums in his head. That leading edge would have to be moving at light speed within a few centuries, no more. Imagine how it would be, Nemoto said grimly, to inhabit a world in the path of such a wave. The exploitation would be rapid, ruthless, merciless, burning up worlds and stars like the front of a forest fire, leaving only ruins and lifelessness. And then, as resources are exhausted throughout the light speed cage, the crash comes, inevitably. Remember Venus. Remember Polynesia. Polynesia     The nearest analog in our own history to interstellar colonization, Ben said. The Polynesians spread out among their Pacific islands for over a thousand years, across three thousand kilometers. But by about A. D. Isolated, each island surrounded by others already full of people, they had nowhere to go. On Easter Island they destroyed the native ecosystem in a few generations, let the soil erode away, cut down the forests. In the end they didnt even have enough wood to build more canoes. Then they went to war over whatever was left. By the time the Europeans arrived the Polynesians had just about wiped themselves out. Think about it, Meacher, Nemoto said. The light speed cage. Imagine this system fully populated, a long way behind the local colonization wave front, and surrounded by systems just as heavily populatedand armedas they were. Leadership Styles And Theories Pdf. And they were running out of resources. There surely were a lot more space dwellers than planet dwellers, but theyd already used up the asteroids and the comets. So the space dwellers turned on the planet. The inhabitants were choked, drowned, baked. I dont believe it, Madeleine said. Any intelligent society would figure out the dangers long before breeding itself to extinction. The Polynesians didnt, Ben said dryly. The Chaera are the aliens who formerly lived on the murdered Venus like planet. They currently live in miserable tiny space colonies orbiting a dangerous black hole artifact. But there remain mysteries, Ben said. The Chaera look too primitive to have constructed that artifact. After all, it manipulates a black holes gravity well. Perhaps their ancestors built this thing.